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The Traveler and the Boast: Lessons on Pride and Humility
A fresh look on proud travelers and lessons of humility in ancient and premodern culture by Kenny Mauro, student at Gonzaga in Florence, for the course Italy, the Journey and the Self, Fall semester 2008.
The idea of travel has been omnipresent throughout the progression of western literature. Beginning with heroic Greek travelers such as Odysseus, this theme can be traced through the medieval period with the hero Beowulf and even concerns the more modern traveler Christopher Columbus. Despite the vast time differences between the several travelers, the respective epic poems, books and letters surrounding their travels share many distinct similarities. One such similarity is the presence of the boast. While boasting is a more refined and common element in the traditions of the epic poems of Beowulf and The Odyssey, boastful language can still be found in the interpretations to The Book of Prophesies by the aforementioned new world explorer Columbus; thus, a comparison of this element of the literature surrounding these travelers proves to be both interesting and illuminating. Although within each work the boast reveals specific cultural values about the respective civilizations and different standards of boasting etiquette, it also highlights a congruent conception of the delicate balance between pride and humility.
The concept of the boastfulness of the traveler plays a crucial role in Homer’s The Odyssey. The hero of the epic poem, Odysseus, is on the return journey to his home in Ithaca from his involvement in the prolonged Trojan War. His many arrivals in strange and foreign kingdoms are often episodes containing boastful words, and it is clear from these scenes that boasting was neither uncommon nor uncouth during this epoch. One such instance of the boast occurs upon Odysseus’ anonymous arrival on the island of the Achaians. When Odysseus is finally asked by his gracious hosts to identify himself, he replies, I am Odysseus son of Laertes, know before all men for the study of crafty designs, and my fame goes up to the heavens.(Book IX 19-20) Thus, in revealing his identity, Odysseus includes what he believes to be part of his persona: his fame and glory. However, this is not a vain act according to the standards of the time; indeed, the names of the great men like Odysseus are constantly adorned with modifiers that speak to their glory. Throughout The Odyssey, both the poet and other characters alike refer to the hero as Odysseus sacker of cities, resourceful Odysseus or even simply great Odysseus. (Book VIII 3,152, 199) His greatness is therefore a part of his identity, and he is justified in boasting of it upon revealing his name. It is most interesting that Odysseus himself ascribes himself as master of crafty designs rather than sacker of cities, illustrating the Greek value of greatness of mind over greatness of the body, although both were indeed considered important.
Furthermore, directly after his recognition, Odysseus shows restraint from vain boasting. Odysseus has been challenged by the young Achaian, Laodamas, to try his hand at the contests and games being played. Odysseus declines, and in turn Laodomas insults him, proclaiming his opinion that Odysseus is not one well versed in contests…You [Odysseus] do not resemble an athlete.(Book VIII 159-164) Upon this insult to his glory and honor, however, Odysseus becomes angry, insulting the youth’s worthless mind (Book VII 177). Immediately, he proves himself by throwing a stone far beyond that of the best of the Achaian’s (Book VIII 189). He then boasts Let any of the rest…come up and try me, since you have irritated me so, either at boxing or wrestling or in a foot race, and further asserts his ability with a bow by claiming I will stay that I stand far out ahead of all others. (Book VII 204-221) This illustrates that even a more pride-based boast, if employed in response to an insult of honor, is the norm within the society; even some Achaians are friendly towards Odysseus in his victory over Laodomas (Book VII198).
These two instances reveal that there is indeed a Greek code for boasting. This code, it seems, is derived from the Greek idea of hubris. The Greek, although valuing cultivation of arête, or excellence, also disdained the idea of overbearing pride. Thus, boasting naturally falls under the scrutiny of hubris, and any boasting that would seem to reveal hubris would render that boast and the hero dishonorable. This is illustrated in an earlier adventure involving the Cyclops, in which Odysseus’ boast was a clear indication of his hubris. After leading his men to be captured by the Cyclops, Odysseus wittingly gains their freedom by blinding the Cyclops and sneaking his men out with sheep tied to their backs in order to deceive the monster (Book IX 391-460). Odysseus has once again employed his revered intelligence, telling the Cyclops that his name is Nobody so that the Cyclops’ cries for help to others of his kind would be ignored; Nobody, the Cyclops reports, is attacking him (Boox IX 407-408). However, upon his escape, Odysseus is driven by his hubris to boast to the Cyclops and reveal his name. Betraying his secret identity, he cries out, Cyclops, if any mortal man asks you who it was that inflicted upon you this shameful blinding tell him that you were blinded by Odysseus. (Book IX 502-504) This hubristic boast, which serves no purpose except the hero’s vanity, is rebuked by the Cyclops’ appeal to his father, Poseidon, who puts a curse upon Odysseus that ensures hardship shall follow him for the rest of his journey (Book IX528-535). Odysseus does not vaunt of his triumph order to maintain his honor; his heroic greatness in outwitting and escaping from the monster would have been boasted of for him by the singers and storytellers of the day, just as the great Achaian singer Demokodos sings of Odysseus’ glory in his idea of the Trojan Horse (Book VIII 498-520) Hubris, therefore, acts as a determinate for acceptable and unacceptable boasting in Greek culture; Odysseus’ restrained, respectful boasts in the land of the Achaians show that he has learned proper boasting habits, avoiding vain acts of self-pride while boasting only to maintain his deserved honor and identity. This further reveals that boasting speaks to the overall message of Odysseus’ education and inward growth during the epic.
Skipping forward many centuries, the epic poem Beowulf, written by an unknown poet, once again presents the issue of a traveler and the boast. Beowulf, already a hero in his own right, has traveled across the sea to the land of the Danes in order to fight Grendel, the monster which is plaguing the Danish kingdom. In introducing himself to the king Hrothgar, Beowulf boasts of his prior exploits with monsters. Others had watched, he brags, while blood stained from my foes, I came out of several ambushes. On that occasion, I took five captive; I killed water-monsters in the waves. (417-421) Despite immediately boasting, however, Beowulf speaks only of an exploit that explains his business in coming to the kingdom; furthermore, he is very tactful in not boasting that he can do what no Danish warrior can. Indeed, he states And now with Grendel, this terrible creature, this giant, I feel the need to hold a meeting on my own. Now then, king of the glorious Danes…I want to beg this one favor of you: that…you do not refuse me. (426-431) Thus, Beowulf is careful to not provoke the Danes while still showing his qualification for his quest.
Beowulf’s boast goes on, proclaiming that he will not use a sword or any other weapon but, Instead, by the strength of my grasp, I will come to grips with the enemy and, foe facing foe, fight for life. (439-441) These words, spoke after his worthiness has been established, reveal a second usage of the boast: a pledge. This boast reveals what precisely Beowulf claims he shall do, and he is thereby bound to it. In this society, a warrior acts according to a heroic code, and under this code a hero is bound by his word to any boast that he makes. Indeed, in establishing the greatness of the king Hrothgar, the poet relates ancient boasts that were made and solemnly states Nor did he fall short of his boast. (79) Thus, Beowulf’s second boast is merely a hero’s proclamation of his quest; he boasts of this quest in order that he might labor for glory before death. (1386) This concept is not a foreign one, as the Greeks also found death seeking glory to be a fitting end. In Beowulf’s time, not fulfilling a boast, or at least dying in an attempt to do so, results in a complete loss of honor for a warrior? honor that, once achieved, is staunchly defended.
Unferth, a conceited young Danish man, attacks Beowulf after he has boasted, arguing that Beowulf had once been bested in a boast. He relays a story of a youthful Beowulf challenging his peer Breca to a swimming match purely out of pride, and insists that Breca was the victor who completely carried out the boast he had made regarding you [Beowulf]. This is not merely an attack on Beowulf’s past, but also the future: Unferth is questioning Beowulf’s honor putting both his reputation and his boast to destroy Grendel into doubt. Beowulf responds harshly yet with discretion, in a similar manner to Odysseus’, when his greatness is insulted. He replies that he did indeed take part in the swimming challenge, but maintains that the competitors had made solemn vows, indicating that the boasts were of a genuine quality and not merely an act of vain pride as Breca alleges (535). He further claims that while swimming, he was attacked by and killed nine sea-monsters while a terrible storm raged; Beowulf states that he has “never heard a song about harder fighting. (530-575, 576-577) Beowulf further attacks, pointing out that Unferth has never done so bold a deed?not that I am boasting of that. (586-587) Beowulf reveals therefore that, although he clearly is boasting, this is a reluctant boast, done only in defense of his honor once it has been attacked. He also states that Unferth’s strong wit is no saving grace for his lack of honor and greatness, revealing that physical deeds (although generally triumphs over evil) are valued over those of the mind, in striking contrast to the Greeks (590).
Furthermore, Beowulf’s defense of his honor is not merely a personal matter. As a champion of his people, the Geats, and a traveler in a foreign land, Beowulf must also maintain the dignity of his people. Thus, Unferth’s attack is not merely directed at Beowulf, but is an insult to the honor of the Geats. This explains his oblique criticism of the courage and greatness Danes as a whole, pointing out that Grendel need have no serous fear of retaliation…He takes his toll of the Danish people. (556-559) This diverges from Beowulf’s previous care to not offend the Danes, but it is clearly an expected rebuke; none of the Dane’s protest his statement as it is made in response to an unfounded attack on the Geats’ honor. Furthermore, before Beowulf retires to sleep, the poet relates his explicit boast.
Beowul of the Götar, uttered a sacred boast of no mean ac-
count: As to the spoils of battle and works of war, I hold my-
self no cheaper than Grendel does himself. Therefore not
by the sword will I put him to sleep...
On this night we two will forgo the sword, if he dares look
For this fight without weapons. (676-684)
In doing so, Beowulf has offered this boast as a testament not only his bravery and honor but also that of his people. The same heroic code that justifies and binds the hero in his boast also maintains that he must gain and defend honor for his entire people, not merely for himself. Indeed, although Beowulf single-handedly defeats Grendel, he maintains that We did this fighting, this deed of daring, made out dangerous venture against the strength of that uncanny creature, with great pleasure. (957-960) Beowulf thus attributes the glory of his achieved boast to all of the Geats, and it is also important to notice that he does not now boast about his battle but merely describes the events as they happened. He has achieved exactly that which he boasted of, and because of the honor he has earned there is no need to brag about his battle. After Beowulf has proved his boast, Unferth also becomes a quieter man in his boastful talk. (980) Moreover, just as the singers eternalize the glory of Odysseus in song, the scops (or singing storytellers) presented in Beowulf will sing of his honorable battle for generations to come (1066-1070). Thus, it is seen that in this culture and time period, although boasting has specific role in the heroic code and is crucial to glory and honor for both an individual and his people, it is not employed to gloat of one’s successes.
The modern traveler and explorer Christopher Columbus, although certainly distinct from the heroes of the aforementioned epics, shows a more contemporary view of the boast. In his commentary on The Book of Prophesies, Columbus boasts not only of his personal merits, but also of his role in religious prophecies. As an Italian living abroad, Columbus must prove his worth, and he does so in a way very similar to that of Beowulf upon arriving at Hrothgar’s council and Odysseus when revealing his identity to the Achaians. Thus, he begins his Letter from the admiral to the king and queen, by boasting of his talents and prowess to the monarchs of Spain who have recently consented to financially back his endeavor to find a westward passage to the Indies. He professes to have personally sailed to all the known regions and to have had commerce and conversation with knowledgeable people of many religions and social strata (6-8). He prides himself on having an intelligent mind…great talent for seamanship… sufficient ability in astrology, geometry and arithmetic and even struts his mental and physical dexterity.( 9) He also avows that he is a learned man in the study of cosmography, histories, chronicles, philosophy, and other disciplines.(10) He does not, however, merely boast of his mundane tangible merits. Indeed, he establishes himself as serving more than a worldly purpose in his journey, avowing that Our Lord wished to make something clearly miraculous of this voyage to the Indies, even asserting that he is divinely inspired by holy voices (16-17).
The role of religion in his boast, however, plays a dual role: although he does boastfully establish himself as much more than a worldly explorer, it also establishes a sense of humility. Despite his pride in his merits, he often attributes these qualities to a higher power, revealing that Our Lord has given him intelligence and that He [our Lord] has endowed me with great talent.(8-9) Indeed, he claims that in his journey his intelligence and knowledge were of little importance compared to the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecy, illustrating that Columbus saw himself as a religious missionary in his role as an explorer (41). Columbus thus embodies the Christian idea of the sin of pride, which can only be avoided through humility. As described in Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy, pride is the basis of all sin, and in Purgatorio Canto IX Dante reveals that a soul’s first step towards redemption is learning humility; the ultimate expression of this is humility before God. Thus, although the religious attribution was a method through which Columbus could boast of his merits while maintaining necessary humility, it reveals that the role of religion and humility before God were of the utmost importance during this epoch.
The dichotomy continues in Columbus’ letter The Discovered Islands, reporting his discoveries. He immediately boasts that my undertakings have attained success, although of course he has not truly accomplished his objective as it is not Asia but a new continent that he has found (1). However, in the same way that the musicians and scops boast of Odysseus and Beowulf’s deeds, history books would recognize Columbus’ journey years to come. He further brags of how he solemnly took possession of many islands, and once even commanded a fort to be built there. (9) Yet, his bombastic claim that his endeavor has attained that which mortal men have never reached is also humbled by his admittance that the success was not corresponding to our [the explorers’] merits but to the holy Christian religion. (11) Therefore, his boast of the grandeur of his mission is not a boast for merely himself, his men, or even the kingdom of Spain, but for an entire religion. Columbus, like Odysseus and Beowulf before him, also submitted to an acceptable form of boasting, tapered by the cultural elements embodied in his words.
Each of the respective works thus reveals both a unique code for boasting as well as revealing an aspect of the nature of the journeys described. However, there is also a commonality between all of the societies: although boasting always has an acceptable and honorable role, it is always counterbalanced by the importance of humility. For the Greek, one is justified in boasting of their merits if it does not become an act of hubris; it requires a certain discretion. For the medieval Germanic tribes of Beowulf, although boasting is important to maintaining honor, one must always be able to live up to their boast; to not do so would violate the heroic code, completely dishonoring both the individual and his people, negating the very motivation for the boast in the first place. Thus, a hero of this culture did not boast beyond his limits nor brag of his successes once achieved. Congruently, even in Columbus’ age of exploration, it was acceptable for one to boast of his or her merits, but it was also expected to defer some of this greatness to the grace and glory of God; in this way, modesty before God in order to avoid the sin of pride provided limits upon boasting. Therefore, each culture represented in the works embodies the societal need to accept rightful boasting while simultaneously checking this allowance with necessary elements of humility as well. This dichotomy is even more grandiose in its scope when one considers that each of the men who illustrated both boasting and humility were travelers in foreign lands who sought to prove themselves while also avoiding vanity; thus, it can be seen almost as a comprehensive human phenomena.
It may seem to be a trite idea, but these works do indeed present an important lesson for at least one modern traveler; as a student studying abroad, I too find myself in a foreign land in which I must prove myself. These works reveal that it is natural for me to want to prove myself, and I should not necessarily always refrain from boasting. My pride in my strengths is part of my identity, just as for Odysseus; although I do not plan to introduce myself as the great Kenny Mauro, reader of classics, telling of my past successes is a confident and acceptable manner in which to act in a new environment.
Yet, at the same time, I must refrain from boasting simply for my pride’s sake, lest I act with hubris. In accordance with the heroic code of Beowulf, I can also boast of what I shall accomplish; however, if I do so, I must live up to this boast, or suffer the dishonor that comes from boasting of a feat I cannot achieve. If I fail trying to my fullest ability, and the boast was not made in vain, at least my personal honor will remain intact. Finally, Christopher Columbus—a figure tied to my heritage as an American—shows that although I can boast of my merits, in both my studies and talents, I must avoid a sin of pride; I must recognize that I am not, despite these merits, truly better than any other man. Most importantly, by following the boasting conditions portrayed in these works, not only will I maintain a personal level of humility, but I will avoid making offense to the new people I encounter on my travels— teachers, students, and locals alike.
Boasting has filled an important role in each of the journeys recounted in The Odyssey, Beowulf and The Book of Prophesies. The protagonists’ boastful language reveals the differing natures of the works: Odysseus’ education, Beowulf’s quest for honor, and Columbus’ missionary journey. Each character also reveals the values of the contemporary time; Odysseus boasts of the greatness of the mind, Beowulf prides himself on his physical ability, and Columbus asserts his religious role. Each of these values also presents a lesson in boasting for a contemporary traveler. Within each work, boastful language also reveals that each culture and society represented has a different set of rules and customs governing this type of speech. Despite the differences between the elaborate boasting codes, however, it is obvious that each culture was concerned with encouraging tactful boasts while simultaneously limiting its acceptability; the cultures did so with their respective concepts of hubris, the heroic code, and the sin of pride. Boasting in all these cultures, therefore, was natural and accepted, but it did not come without societal limits.
Works Cited
Alighieri, Dante. The Divine Comedy Trans. John D. Sinclaire. New York: Oxford University Press, 1961.
Beowulf, Medieval Epics, Trans. William Alfred. New York: The Modern Library, 1963. Pages 1-83.
Columbus, Christopher., Commentary on The Book of Prophesies Trans. Blair Sullivan. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997.
Homer, The Odyssey, Trans. Richard Lattimore. New York: Harper Collins, 1975.
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