fascist propaganda and the use of mass media, communication and culture to propagate an ideology - the florence newspaper
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Fascist Propaganda and the use of Mass Media, Communication and Culture to Propagate an Ideology
By Micki Bloom Florence Newspaper publishes this really interesting essay written by Micki Bloom - who has studied Italian Culture and Society at the Richmond University in Florence with Professor Lorenzo Picchi - on the control on Italian Media under Mussollini's dictatorship. A topic that is still of actual interest, unfortunately. “Mussolini’s connection of ‘totalitarian’ to a process of ‘fascistisation’…echoed the description of Fascism as a ‘total conception of life’ in March 1925 by Giovanni Gentile, the Hegelian philosopher and pedagogue who was Minister of Education from October 1922 until July of 1924,” writes Philip Morgan in Italian Fascism, 1919-1945. “Gentile’s use of the term ‘total’ conveyed Fascism’s claim to ubiquity and a comprehensive, all-encompassing outlook on life, like a religious faith inspiring all facets of existence. Individuals found only full self-realization through unity and identification with the state, which was not a neutral umpire but an ‘ethical’ authority embodying moral values and inculcating them in society.” The Fascist Party, headed by Benito Mussolini, took power in 1922 and would eventually lead Italy into World War II, allied with Hitler’s Nazi Party and the Empire of Japan. Fascism, while characterized by radical totalitarian ideals, was in actually a “populist” party, winning power through the electoral process and garnering widespread support from the Italian people. Like other totalitarian regimes, the Fascist party relied heavily on various forms of propaganda in order to retain the support of its public and enforce the desired image of a strong state, strong government, and a loyal and happy electorate. Mussolini and his officials utilized various outlets as propaganda tools. Clearly, the media played an incredibly important role in Fascist propaganda, especially the radio and newspapers. Cultural facets, such as film, literature and music were also used to sell the desired image of Italy and il Duce. Mussolini also understood the importance of sports in propaganda, and took advantage of the socio-cultural arena to reiterate symbols, images, and phrases to the masses. “In disseminating a mass culture made up of simple, strongly nationalist slogans, the fascist dictatorship’s exploitation of sports cannot be overlooked,” says Marco Palla in Mussolini and Fascism. “Sports, and the fascist emphasis on physical education in general were, however, also a means of imposing a growing militarization on civil society”. While this occurred temporally parallel to propagandistic ventures in Nazi Germany, the function of the Italian propaganda machine was different – and generally much more restricted and much less rabidly anti-opposition – than its National Socialist party contemporary. In fact, while Fascist propaganda is certainly worthy of close study and analysis, its scope and ultimate effectiveness is still debated in the intellectual forum. Before examining the forms of propaganda and how they were carried out during Mussolini’s regime, it is important to note why propaganda was such an important aspect of this – and, truly, any totalitarian government – and what the ultimate goal was. As is the case with any dictatorship, public opinion matters only abstractly. After all, power is vested in the hands of one man, and all power over law and rule is guaranteed to him. Opposition is not generally a threat to this sort of supremacy, especially to a militant regime that has no qualms dealing with “enemies” of the state violently. However insignificant opposition is (and how easily it can be relegated to the background or eliminated completely), however, support from the general population is integral to strengthening the country and therefore the regime. The goal of Fascist propaganda was to instill in every citizen an image of a mighty, proud nation faithfully following its deified leader. The image of Mussolini as invincible and all knowing was a carefully constructed one. “…well before Fascism was invented the young Mussolini was already constructing himself, and being constructed by others, as a chief, or Duce, and as a new and dynamic type of leader through whom, somehow, the spirit of the masses throbbed,” writes R. H. B. Bosworth. Image was everything, and the idea Italian citizen could be molded through exposure to a repetitive stream of propaganda. “Essentially, the Fascists wanted to create an Italy made in their own image, a nation of ready-made warriors, physically fit, mentally agile, disciplined, courageous and obedient, committed believers and fighters in the cause of the nation,” notes Morgan. “To achieve this, Fascist propaganda and indoctrination projected a series of images and models of the kind of conduct and behavior for the ‘new’ Italian to emulate. To diffuse a culture of warlike and patriotic endeavor, the regime could draw on and propagate the virtues of some of Fascism’s own heroic figures, the First World War combatant, the squadrist, and of course, Mussolini himself”. Mussolini’s image was a carefully constructed one – he saw to it that his name was always printed in capital letters, and when pictures of him were printed they were carefully chosen (and, for instance, never showed him dancing or with priests) to omit any possible images of weakness. (Pollard, Mussolini’s Rivals: The Limits of the Leadership Cult in Fascist Italy ). Likenesses of Mussolini were printed on posters, pamphlets, and books, and Fascist slogans were printed repeatedly as well – this occurred not only during the rise of Mussolini’s power, but even in the face of disaster and defeat as the war waged on and the Fascist stronghold continued to lose power. This sort of denial of the truth – of history, of the actual state of the war, etc. – is a prevalent feature of totalitarian and Fascist propaganda. In a 1995 article in the Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Isola Gianni examines the impact and role of radio in social and political history, beginning, “Broadcasting was born in Italy under Fascism and Fascism used it, right from the beginning, for propaganda. The radio sets installed in schools or leisure centers for workers, in order to favor collective listening, were adorned with fasces, Fascist symbols which contributed to identify the wonder of hearing a distant voice with Mussolini's regime.” Simply the repeated sound of il Duce’s booming voice oozing out of radios in the households of Italians constituted a form of propaganda. The ability of Mussolini to reach each individual personally – in the confines of their own homes as well as in public arenas where radio broadcasts were played – kept him at the forefront of the public consciousness. Palla notes, “The effect of the State’s ubiquitous presence, made possible by the means of radio, was probably more influential than any other instrument of propaganda”. The ability to reach the entire population simultaneously – outside of the arena of mass demonstrations - was also a relatively new ability due to the only-recent birth of radio, which added to the effectiveness. Lacking other forms of entertainment in the household (it would be another two decades before TV became an everyday reality for the Italian public), radio broadcasts – especially those dictated by Mussolini himself - were afforded undivided attention by much of the nation. Newspapers and magazines, the other forum for news provided to the public, also became Fascist propaganda vehicles. This was first and foremost a result of government intervention in the press. “Several fascist leaders began to publish magazines, Guiseppe Bottai inaugurated the ambitious Critica Fascista (Fascist critical review), and Mussolini, himself, was editorial director of Il Popolo d’Italia, and Gerarchia (Leadership, or hierarchy),” Palla reports. The implications of a dictator acting as the editor of a newspaper or magazine are wholly predictable – what is being printed (and, almost as important, what is not being printed) is going to be a careful construction of a reality decided upon by the leader. “The Fascist party directly controlled such newspapers as Il popolo d’Italia and its input and influence was felt in other non-government controlled dailies,” say Jaqueline Reich and Piero Garofalo in Re-Viewing Fascism: Italian Cinema, 1922-1943. Therefore, the writings and the images contained within the pages of Fascist newspapers, dailies, and magazines exhibit predictable propagandistic connotations. Various other newspapers and books distributed during this time period were not directly run by government organizations but nonetheless entertained their audiences with propagandistic images and writing. For example, a 1943 issue of Il Travaso delle Idee, a comical propaganda newspaper that insisted it was the official organ of intelligent people,” contains solely vapid anti-American and racist messages – encouraging strictly Fascist-supporting thought where once (as late as 1924) was content making light of Mussolini and the Fascist party. In “Confederazione Nazionale Fascista degli Agricoltori,” Agenda Agricola 1934-XII, a pamphlet distributed by the Fascist party to farmers and merchants in 1934, typical information on agricultural products and general farming information was accompanied by quotes from Mussolini and Fascist propagandistic illustrations. “Professor Mussolini, linguist extraordinaire (at least in his own mind), art critic of (fairly) advanced tastes, author of plays, novels and histories, patron of the cinema, of museums, framer of memory, was, at least according to official piety, particularly interested in culture and particularly anxious to be recognized as cultivated by its intellectual producers.” Culture was a very important part of Fascist Italy, and played a rather large role in influencing the masses. Mussolini recognized early on the importance of various cultural facets in Italian life – and, as the previous quote illustrated, liked to think of himself as a well-cultured man who appreciated good music, art, literature and other fine culture – and was encouraging of their use in Fascist propagandistic ventures. Music, a cultural outlet seemingly independent of political strings, was taken under the wing of the Fascist government and often demonstrated Fascist influences. “Even if composers and performers sometimes had things other than high politics on their minds, the musical establishment greeted the rise to power of the fascists with widespread applause…by 1926-27 the musical beauracracy was duly inducted into the Corporate State, with the creation of the ‘National Fascist Federation of Theatrical, Cinematic and Related Industries’…a National Facist Union of Musicians was also created, to be headed by Guiseppe Blanc, ” writes Bosworth, noting the governmental branch that took charge of a section of the music industry. Sport, another large aspect of Italian culture both prior to Fascism and during the Fascist rule, was also utilized by Mussolini as a way to spread the message of Fascism and retain public support. “Mussolini was aware of the value of sport for political propaganda and nominated loyal Fascists to key positions,” notes Adrian Lyttelton in Liberal and Fascist Italy: 1900-1945, continuing, “In major cities new football stadiums were built, often designed by well-known architects, like the Florence stadium, named after Fascist ‘martyr’ Giovanni Berta and designed by Pier Luigi Nervi, which was inaugurated in 1931”. Sports arenas were particularly appropriate venues for encouraging Fascist idealism in spectators – shows of strength, dexterity and manliness, sports also brought out fierce nationalism as well as an intense sense of unity and pride. “The Fascists used sports to increase Italy’s international prestige, to rally public opinion in favor of new national myths, and to educate the ‘nation in arms’,” Lyttelton says. The Fascists often incorporated the aesthetic of ancient Rome into their propaganda, reiterating these images (both literal and figurative) of strength and power, as well as incredible resourcefulness and growth. In 1936, Mussolini announced at a rally, “Cinema is the strongest weapon.” This statement demonstrated Mussolini’s interest in the arts, particularly in film, and indicated his dedication to utilizing the strength of this cultural “weapon” to further the Fascist ideals. Unlike German propaganda films made at the time, much of the influence intended in Italian films created during the Fascist era was not to directly influence or propagate party ideals (like the infamous film Triumph of the Will by German filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl), but to provide an escapism that cast Italy and Italian life in a good light. “The task of the directors, scriptwriters, and performers involved was not to make the spectator think, but rather induce him to forget,” write Reich and Garofalo. Often, films would present an idealized Fascist Italy, “projecting this image of ‘kinder, gentler’ Fascism”. This, Reich and Garofalo note, “reflected a general complicity with the regime: its imperial ambitions, its social values, and even some of its policies”. Like all of the other aspects of Fascist culture, the government took a modicum amount of control over the film industry – this began in 1930, but would continue to grow throughout the beginning of the decade. Early 1930’s legislation required that at least 10% of all films shown in Italy must be of Italian origin. Subsequent legislation gave the government even more control over what the public viewed in theaters, mandating that LUCE films precede all feature film screenings. The idea of creating a mass consensus through nationalism is important here – Mussolini and the Fascist government intended to influence opinion through instilling a sense of national pride. Censoring the screening of international films as well as mandating the screening of nationalistic propaganda films acted in two ways – first to restrict the income of other (and perhaps better) images of life elsewhere (this was especially the case of American films) that might spark discontentment with the state of affairs, and second to reiterate the greatness of the Italian nation. “The fascists were quick to understand the importance of the radio and movies for propaganda,” says Lyttelton, “but feared that the images and impressions of a more affluence and cosmopolitan society might arouse the desire for geographical and social mobility and thus contribute to undermining the values of authority, obedience and religion”. In 1933, after a trip to the United States, journalist Luigi Freddi played an integral role in furthering government presence in the film industry and revolutionizing the ways in which film acted as a propaganda tool. “…for Freddi and the Fascist regime, there were two fundamental concerns: 1) to rebuild the Italian film industry in order to exalt the artistic merits and cultural glories of the third Roman Empire to those at home and abroad; and 2) to use film as an indirect tool in the creation of consensus among the masses…by aligning it ideologically with the regimes politics and policies”. This led to the creation of “The General Film Office,” or Generale per la Cinematografia, headed by Freddi. From here, the film industry exhibited both censorship aspects of propaganda as well as the overt construction of Fascist ideals through film. The effective propagandist must be a master of the art of speech, of writing, or journalism, of the poster and of the leaflet. He must have the gift to use the major methods of influencing public opinion such as the press, film and radio to serve his ideas and goals, above all in an age of advancing technology. . . It may be good to have power based on weapons. It is better and longer lasting, however, to win and hold the heart of a nation. The preceding quote, uttered by infamous propaganda mastermind Joseph Goebbels in 1934, characterized the attitude taken towards the mass media and culture not only in Goebbels’ Nazi Germany, but in all totalitarian regimes at the time. Italy was certainly no different – Benito Mussolini, leader of the Fascist party that ruled from 1922 to 1943, understood as well as Goebbels the power of popular opinion and the ability of a regime to manipulate and control its public through the various cultural outlets. While in power, Mussolini’s government utilized film, radio, newspapers, music, literature, as well as public events and activities such as sports and clubs to build support for Fascist ideals and harness the energy of the nation to the Fascist political machine. Still, how effective and encompassing Italian Fascist propaganda actually was is less than clear – unlike Nazi Germany, which was totalitarian in the purest form (controlling every and all aspect of the lives of its citizens, forbidding dissent in any form), Mussolini’s regime would be more accurately characterized as authoritarian. Governing from this perspective, Mussolini did not aim at “controlling” per se the actions and thoughts of his public, at least not outright. Dissent was not squashed violently in a way characteristic of Nazi Germany – instead, it was just pushed to the background, forcibly kept quiet so that it did not have a chance to reach a wide audience. Fascism aimed to be a way of life for the Italian people – indeed, it was widely supported and accepted by Italians (at least at the beginning of its conception and rule). Mussolini’s goal was to strengthen the nation through Fascism, giving it a strong and nationalistic identity. To garner support from the masses, propaganda infiltrated almost all aspects of life, spreading strong, positive images of a wise and powerful leader and a strong, able and superior electorate. “…The prevailing myth on which Fascist propaganda focused was that of ancient Rome, which identified Fascism as the recreation of a glorious and exalted past, and also justified imperialist expansion.” It is certainly no surprise that such allusions to ancient Rome were important to Fascist propaganda, as they imply a strengthened, almost invincible Italy – the type of Italy Mussolini hoped would grow and help lead the way towards a new world. Lifestyle, Arts and Entertainment - a7.08.20.15.37Further information
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